In the time of the butterflies Essay

1 Overview In the Time of the Butterflies is a book about the struggle of the Mirabal sisters in their fight against the totalitarian of Rafael Leonidas Trujillo, the merciless ruler of the Dominican Republic. The, though, fictitious, book tackles many issues mainly centered on the Dominican Republic Government and the true essence of its function. The Mirabal sisters went through drastic changes, one of the notable themes in the book is that the sisters put photographs of Jesus Christ and Trujillo together and cite differences between the two. The tremors of a dictatorial rule to citizens is also another attention grabbing theme in the narrative. The story in its entirety is told by the famous Mirabel sisters who each tell their version of how they fought Trujillo’s tyranny. The book was based on a true story Summary In an era where free will is totally controlled by one person, four sisters showed courage in its truest form and joined a rogue faction to fight a dictator to the end. The tale of the Mirabel sisters tells a story of courage and repulsion. The four sisters denied dictatorial decree in every means necessary until their lungs ceased to draw breath. The narrative starts with the surviving Mirabal sister, Dede. Telling th events of their struggle to an American interviewer. The succeeding chapters are told by each sister. Throughout the book, the sisters’ endeavors against the government, apart from this, a personal struggle on the hands of Trujillo are also told by each sister. Three of the Mirabal sisters who were major contributors to the rebel group that fought against Trujillio were beaten to death in 1960. In the Time of the Butterflies 2 The Root of all Evil Trujillo claimed his name to power the hard way, meaning he did not simply grabbed it but he worked his way to achieve it. The path to his reign began when the United States conducted an occupation on the Dominican Republic in the twentieth century. The U. S Marine-trained Trujillo quickly rose among the ranks in the Guardia Nacional, an army of locals trained by the U. S armed forces. The United States made many developments during the occupation. The Americans built infrastructures, developed public health, and established schools, creating a middle-class society. Trujillo enrolled himself in a military school operated by America, in the year 1921. By the end of the year, he was assigned to command a particular battalion. This was the stepping stone to his rule. He the collaborated with rebel troops and forced the current president to file an immediate resignation. Come the next election, Trujillo was the sole candidate for the Dominican Party. Rafael Trujillo’s Tyrant career was already put into practice upon the beginning of his term. This is because of the disastrous hurricane that hit the country, Santo Domingo was totally devastated. Help soon arrived and the United States Red Cross provided the funds and the City of Santo Domingo was reconstructed by Trujillo. Tranquility lasted for a year, Trujillo later began to make the citizens aware of his powers. He decreed that the only political party shall be the Dominican Party, hence making elections only a formality for his dictatorship to last. Government employees were forced to shell out ten percent of their wage to the National Treasury. All who opposed the decrees met their demise. From own yard, Trujillo expanded his domain to the local populace. Trujillo was incomprehensive of the biggest challenge to his career, upon unveiling his will to the people, Maria Argentina Minerva Mirabal refused to be controlled by Trujillo and fought for what she believed in, Trujillo was unmindful of the other threats and the only dreadful thought to him was to be beaten by a woman, when Trujillo finally got rid of his greatest nemesis, he thought the he finally won. Contrary to his convictions, the assassination of the key figures of the resistance led to a revolution in a nationwide scale which led to the plot of his his death on May 30, 1961. In the Time of the Butterflies 3 The Way of the Butterfly Minerva was the second born of the Mirabal Sisters. Minerva grew up a strong woman with rebellious tendencies. She started concerning herself when she noticed that she can’t even speak her mind in her own home. In Minerva’s narrative chapter, she told that her eyes opened little-by-little, she exclaimed that her primary motives were political as she fought for her freedom, as a girl and as a citizen. As she sees the torment inflicted by Trujillo’s cronies to her friends’ families, in her years with Immaculada Concepcion, her separatist ideology was turning into angst. Her revitalized cause went on, as she got associated with the Popular Socialist Party. Her acquaintance with the group’s leader strengthened Minerva’s rogue emotions toward the Trujillo Administration. These sentiments that she had were also backed up by literary works with leftist implications and radio frequencies from the nearby lands of Cuba and Venezuela that centered discussion on the Dominican Republic’s political turmoil. Minerva’s first encounter withTrujillo was when the Mirabals were invited to a party by Trujillo, the invitation was personally brought by prominent local government officials. Don Enrique, Dona Chea, Patria with her husband Pedro, Dede along with her husband Jaime and Minerva attended the Banquet. A storm ruined the party which prompted the family to make a graceful exit. Minerva’s father was immediately apprehended the next day, followed by Minerva and her Mother the day after. Trujillo, angered by the family’s early departure, treated such act as a form of disrespect. Prior to their arrest, the governor suggested that Don Enrique should submit a letter of apology to Trujillo. The head of the Mirabal family complied, however Trujillo was not satisfied. Minerva was detained with her mother at he Hotel Nacional apart from Don Enrique who was barred at the Ciudad Trujillo(Santo Domingo). Everyday, Minerva was taken to the Fortaleza Ozama for interrogation. Minerva was questioned about communism charges and was also obliged to write a letter of apology but declined. The connections of the family brought Minerva and her family back to liberty’s arm. In the Time of the Butterflies 4 They were again arrested, after two years of freedom, Don Enrique was incarcerated on Ozama while Minerva and the other females were placed under house arrest. They were convicted of failure to purchase a book written about Trujillo. The truth behind the arrest was actually Minerva’s contempt for Trujillo’s ideologies in government. These accounts proved to be too straining for their father, fear and stress brought Don Enrique Mirabal to his grave in 1953. Due to this recent events, Minerva’s motives list added a fresh one, a personal motive, her angst turned into desire, the desire to get Rafael Trujillo out of position. She went to the city of Santo Domingo to study law in her belief that it would give her a big leap in her struggle against Trujillo’s governance, she was then persuaded by a law professor, Lio Morales and taught her that Trujillo was Neither the God nor the Supreme Ruler whom the people believed he is. As she was in law school, her her studies were ordered to stop due to the sensitivity of her topic. The next years were periods of peace for Minerva as she led a normal life. Minerva and her sisters pursued romantic relationships. Four years later Minerva would be part of an internal anti-regime group in her re-kindled attempts to abolish the Trujillo-led government. The group in which Minerva’s husband was the president, was named The 14th of June Movement. The movement was named as such as a tribute to the Dominican Liberation Troops who were slaughtered by Trujillo’s army in an effort to end his regime. The group has an elite subgroup â€Å"The Butterflies† in which Minerva is a part of. The members of the Leftist Sect were apprehended and later released due to increasing anti-government uprisings. Unfortunately, some of the prisoners remained, one of them was Minerva’s husband Manuel. This move by Trujillo did not stop Minerva in fighting for her cause, one after noon when Minerva was on her way home from a visit to her husband, the vehicle they were in was ambushed by the Trujillo Soldiers. They were brought in a sugarcane filled where the unarmed Minerva together with her sisters Patria and Maria Teresa. Here they were ruthlessly beaten to death. Minerva did not die in vain. Her death served as a wake up call and started an anti Trujillo which resulted to the ruler’s assassination, thus ending his barbarous sovereignty. References Alvarez, J. (1994). In the Time of the Butterflies. New York. Alonquin.

Was the Provisional Government Doomed from the Beginning? a Russian Revolution

History Dissertation Was the Provisional Government Doomed from the Beginning? word count: 3999 Josh Blake Candidate No. 031276977 Contents †¢ Introduction P 3 †¢ Chapter 1: Nature of the Provisional Government and Structuralist opinions. P 4 – 6 †¢ Chapter 2: Structuralist response P 7 – 8 †¢ Chapter 3: Intentionalist response P 9 – 12 †¢ Conclusion P 13 †¢ Bibliography P 14 †¢ Annotated Bibliography P 15 – 16 Was the Provisional Government doomed from the beginning? After the February revolution on 1917 which saw the abdication of the Tsar, Russia was in turmoil. It had gone (in a matter of days) from being one of the most repressed countries in the world to being totally free with nobody in any real position of power or authority, and this was a massive change for the population of Russia. As a result of this confusion two bodies were set up to temporarily control Russia until a constituent Assembly could be elected. These two bodies were the Provisional government, (made up of leading Liberal parties, and Kadets), and the Petrograd Soviets (made up of workers, soldiers, socialist revolutionaries, and had both Menshevik and Bolshevik members. However this reign did not last long as in October of the same year the Bolsheviks seized the Tauride Palace overthrowing the Provisional government (PG) in the name of the Petrograd Soviet. There are many reasons to why the PG did not manage to consolidate its power; primarily there were a lot of internal problems that gave them a big disadvantage. However there were also external pressures from the pe asants, workers and the war that the PG could simply not cope with. As historians have studied the question in depth different schools of thought have been established. The Structuralist School believes that the PG was doomed from the beginning, because of the problems they faced such as Dual Power, the War and Order No1; however Darby who is a popular Structuralist historian believes that there was a â€Å"window of opportunity. †[1] However they failed to use this to their advantage and it cost them dear in October 1917. On the other hand the Intentionalist school believe that the PG was not in fact doomed from the beginning and collapsed due to outside pressure from the peasants, workers and impact of revolutionary leaders such as Lenin. Lenin’s revolutionary slogans such as â€Å"peace, land and bread†[2] shifted the support hugely from the PG to the Bolsheviks and other factors such as the July Days meant Lenin could undermine the PG completely. And gain support for the Bolsheviks. Chapter1: Nature of the Provisional Government and Structuralist opinions On the 2nd March 1917 the PG was declared and on the 4th minister’s were appointed. The Petrograd Soviet was also declared as a leading body in Russia and this initial system of Dual Power presented an immediate problem for both groups. Having two Bodies trying to run the same country immediately causes difficulties as there would be disagreements between them. This is exaggerated between the PG and Petrograd Soviet because their views and ideologies are so distinctly different. The PG wanted to contain the revolution, whereas the Soviets wanted to deepen it. John Bradley agrees with this, stating: â€Å"The Soviet and the PG although coexisting, would never act in harmony, both preferring to follow separate roads in the pursuit of different goals. †[3] This initial rivalry deepened with the introduction of Order No. 1 which was granted to the Soviets. Order No. 1 essentially gave the Soviets control of the armed forces in Russia. It states that: armed forces are subordinate to the Petrograd Soviet in all their political actions; and one delegate from each company was to be elected to the Petrograd Soviet. Also all weapons were to remain under the control of company and battalion committees, and in no circumstances to be handed over to officers. This meant that, â€Å"the armed forces were disabled from enforcing the PG’s will. [4] Mosley supports this and states that: â€Å"The PG has no real power, troops, railroads; post and telegraph are all in the hands of the Soviet. †[5] The PG’s liberal nature also played a large role in their lack of effective policies and knowledge. When they were appointed the PG immediately: abolished the secret police; abolished censorship; introduced civil liberties; abolished the death penalty; granted civil rights to soldiers; aboli shed discrimination based on class or religion; and gave amnesty to political prisoners. All these things (contrary to the PG’s beliefs) were seen to be giving to much freedom to the population, to soon and this had a knock on effect throughout their reign. For example, when the state was threatened during April, July and October they were unwilling to use force. Orlando Figes sees this as a major reason for their downfall: â€Å"Intoxicated by their own self image as their heirs of 1789, they were deluded into believing that they could resolve the problems by 1917 by importing western constitutional practices and policies, for which there were no precedents, nor the necessary cultural base in Russia. [6] The PG had destroyed the original bureaucracy under the Tsar and did not replace it with anything; this resulted in the population not really knowing what they were supporting. Other aspects that cost the PG dearly were internal problems such as the members within the body. After the abdication of the Tsar on the 2nd March 1917 the population expected the Duma t o take control of Russia. The Duma was a secondary government set up by the Tsar in reply to the October Manifesto after the 1905 revolution to keep the population of Russia happy. However as the Tsar Nicholas was still sovereign and there was a chance that he could come back into power the Duma felt they could not establish a leading role over Russia because if the Tsar were to return they could be accused of treason. They were simply trying to save their backs in case this was to happen. As a result of this they set a Provisional committee separately which was to act as a temporary body in control of Russia until a Constituent Assembly could be elected later in the year. In contrast to the Soviets the PG was chosen by the Duma whereas the Soviet was elected by the people emphasising the PG’s lack of connection with the workers and peasants in Russia. It seems today that historians feel the Duma should have accepted their opportunity to control Russia but they had a dread of responsibility and did no want any blame if anything was to go wrong, Richard Pipes wrote: â€Å"It has been argued that the failure of the Duma to proclaim at once, in an unequivocal manner, the assumption of power had disastrous effects. [7]This suggests that the PG was a second option for the Duma and was not a well established institution and this immediately suggests that the PG was doomed from the beginning. Bernard Paves emphasises the poor quality of the PG in his book: â€Å"The PG was what the country had to offer in experience of government outside the administrative machine; but they amounted only to a few fairly competent critics, without authority, educated in a Duma which had hardly been listened to. †[8] Initially the Duma had announced that the PG was to handle restoration of order. The PG felt a political revolution was needed, not a social revolution. However a social reform or revolution was a necessity in Russia as there was mass unrest in both the countryside and cities. This dissatisfaction needed to be sorted out as soon as possible and although the PG tried they did not recognise what was needed to transform Russia. As Lenin wrote, Russia was in the second phase of the revolution and it was now the turn of the proletariat to continue it. The PG however was trying too hard to contain both the working class and peasants without ever giving them any of their demands making them restless. This was another key reason why they were not able to consolidate their power. Although the PG was predominantly a liberal body there was one exception. Aleksandr Fyodorovich Kerensky was a member of both the PG and the Petrograd Soviet and was the only representative in the body with moderately socialist ideologies. This resulted in disagreements within the party and his key role as prime minister after Lvov came as a disadvantage as he adopted a new self arrogance and cost the PG dearly. There was a huge contrast between Lvov and Kerensky. Lvov was seen largely as a â€Å"figure head†[9] and was an effective leader however he was forced to resign over the issue of regional nationalities. Kerensky on the other hand was not such an effective leader and sought his own goals although appearing popular through the early years of the 1900’s. As the PG was a liberal body they felt a republic was where Russia should be heading. However this contrasted with Kerensky’s ideology’s and was another reason for them being unable to consolidate their power. Milyukov was also a key member in the party. As Mosley wrote, â€Å"he was an outstanding personality in the party. †[10] Milyukov was appointed minister of foreign affairs, and he played a huge role in formulating the policies which the PG adopted. However in connection with the War Milyukov made a grave mistake that ended in his resignation. This lack of knowledge was typical of the members of the PG. Chapter 2: Structuralists response The Structuralist response believes that the PG was doomed from the beginning due to their poor response to the demands of both the peasants and the workers, and the pressure put on them by the war. There were serious problems in Russia however there were also very high expectations of the PG, putting pressure on them, and making it hard for them to effectively consolidate power. These key issues included: the war, land distribution, national minorities, economy, and social reform, and in March of 1917 it was important the PG made a good first impression. The key question involving the war was whether or not Russia should sue for immediate peace. This however would have implications as it would be very embarrassing and humiliating along with the severe loss of territory that would incur. If they were not to call for immediate peace they faced another problem. Should they continue fighting alongside with their allies and try to gain territory or fight a defensive war and simply try not to lose any more territory? The PG made a good choice in only fighting a defensive war. This however backfired when the Milyukov affair became apparent, and this cost the PG dearly. Although this problem could be seen to be a result of outside pressure and not an initial reason for their downfall, their initial reaction was simply the starting point from which the problems involving the war escalated out of control. The question involving the distribution of land was whether they should take land from the nobility and landowners and hand it over to the peasants or should they wait for the Constituent Assembly to organise it in a more controlled way. They immediately opted to stand back from these demands, and stated that they would wait for the Constituent Assembly to be elected so that they could deal with it more appropriately. The PG adopted the same approach when answering the vital question of the demands of the working class in Russia. The Working class wanted much better conditions for both working and living; they also wanted eight hour working days and elected members on factory committees. Beryl Williams wrote: â€Å"Labour legislation was brought in by the PG: the right to strike, and to elect factory committees, an eight hour day, freedom and land reform†¦ however these were postponed until the promised Constituent Assembly. †[11] This made the workers and peasants restless and as the year progresses they simply put more pressure on the PG. The dilemma involving national minorities was that neighbouring countries to Russia such as Finland, Ukraine, and Poland wanted independence. They decided to grant these countries independence as they thought they did not really have any control over them anyway. However this sparked disagreements within the party and turned out to be more important than the PG had originally thought. It resulted in the Kadets leaving the PG and this came as a huge loss of support and meant Kerensky took over Lvov position as prime minister. The economic situation in Russia was not good and supply of food and fuel needed to be increased. These key issues in March 1917 were very important to the PG’s downfall. They gave them an opportunity to excel however due to bad decisions and poor policies the PG was not able to consolidate power. The Structuralists School sees these problems as a chance for the PG to show Russia they were capable of leadership and the historian Darby refers to these times as a â€Å"window of opportunity. †[12] However the PG’s inability to cope with such stresses among other strains put them immediately on a downward spiral. Chapter 3: Intentionalist response Although there is a lot of evidence to suggest that the PG was doomed from the beginning there is also evidence which supports the contrary. Many of the issues that the PG failed to deal with in March escalated and caused big problems within the body. There were also key mistakes made that put support in the hands of the Bolsheviks and gave them a prime opportunity to seize power in October. As Beryl Williams wrote, â€Å"the PG created a climate in which its political opponents could return and flourish. †[13] The initial policy that the PG had set up in response to the war was one of the only vaguely effective policies they had adopted; this however did not last long. On the 20th April of that year a message from Milyukov (The Minister of Defence) that had been sent to the PG was leaked to the public and sparked various protests throughout Russia. The note told the PG that the army was to go on the offensive; however this was deeply unpopular with both the Soviet and the Russian people. Figes sees this as, â€Å"waving a red rag in front of the soviet bull,†[14] In response the Soviet called upon the people of warring countries to force their governments to negotiate peace and in doing so condemned Milyukov’s pledge. It is clear that the PG underestimated how much the Russian people, and soldiers wanted peace. As Mosley wrote, â€Å"not fully aware then of the widespread unwillingness of the Russian people to continue the war. [15] The Milyukov note is a key example of the outside pressure that helped in the collapse of the PG and it emphasises how even a policy that seemed effective in March had backfired due to poor decisions made by key members in the body. This incident put the PG in a bad light and it was only to get worse. Another initial policy that affected the PG badly was the problem involving small ne ighbouring countries to the USSR and their desire for independence. Initially the PG had overlooked these demands, however as the demands grew the PG was forced to make a decision. They made a quick decision as they felt that this issue would not affect anybody within the party or population. They gave these countries independence, however in doing so sparked unrest within the party. Many of the Kadets’ including Milyukov were very unhappy that these countries (Ukraine especially) had been granted independence, and as a result they left the PG. With the loss of Milyukov, Kerensky was appointed minister of war and Paves sees this as: â€Å"gravity shifting very predominantly to the left. [16] This resulted in the PG losing their impact on the population; it also cost them a lot of members and support and signalled another step towards their destruction. As the weeks went by the PG was failing to answer the peasant’s demands for the distribution of land. This meant that the PG was losing support as the peasants’ opinion of them became increasingly bad. Kowalski argues this: â€Å"The problem was that the peasant restraint was not rewarded. The PG with the support of the soviet procrastinated on the land question. [17] Iganev, a leader of a popular socialist party said: â€Å"We are always being told, ‘later, later, not now, not until the Constituent Assembly’†¦ however the land question must be resolved now! †[18] This is a clear example of the pressure put on the PG. This view is supported by many historians such as Richard Pipes and over the years an Intentionalist School has been developed. They believe that it was the outside pressure put upon the PG that cost them, arguing that it was revolutionary leaders such as Lenin that led to the popularity of the PG diminishing whilst the popularity of other revolutionary groups grew. Another example of the outside pressure put upon the PG is the political transformation of the Petrograd Soviet. They had transformed from (in March) being an institution supporting parliamentary democracy into instruments for revolutionary socialism, and there are consequences of this. According to Mosley there are two main reasons for this transformation: Primarily the Soviet’s were annoyed because the PG postponed for future determination by the Constituent Assembly the solution of such pressing problems. The second reason is largely a consequence of the first as there were growing opinions of the workers and peasant against the PG because they had failed to meet any of their demands, and conditions in Russia had not improved. This meant that the soviets felt they had to branch themselves away from the failing PG to keep their reputation intact. The Bolsheviks also used this to their advantage as when they saw this poor reputation of the PG and their lack of support the Bolsheviks took a radical move to wipe the PG out completely. The Bolsheviks saw this opportunity: â€Å"At the Russian conference of the Bolshevik workers party on March 29, there was only one speaker who opposed the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks and establishment of a proletariat dictatorship. And he was rules out of order. †[19] This emphasises how from very early on in the PG’s reign people were looking to overthrow it and using Lenin’s intelligence they found a perfect opportunity. Using Propaganda they adopted a new party slogan of: â€Å"all power to the soviets. In doing so the Bolsheviks felt that they could rise to power through the Petrograd Soviet and then disband it when they got to a dominant position within the party. As a result of this the PG were left with very little support. As opposition to the PG grew there was one key incident that sparked the Bolshevik engine and this was the return of Lenin on the 3rd April 1917. Previously to this Lenin had been in exile and had not been able to ignite Bolshe vik movement. When he returned the Bolshevik workers parties were already willing to overthrow the PG but simply did not have the means to do so, and that is what Lenin brought to the table. Lenin’s initial opinion was that he welcomed the revolution but saw it as only being in its first stage, the April thesis was Lenin’s radical program to introduce the second phase. The April thesis was announced almost immediately after Lenin’s return on the 16th April and it promised the population of Russia exactly what they wanted, which put the PG in a very bad light. The thesis included: No support to the PG; an immediate end to the war; arming the workers to defend the revolution; the introduction of a worldwide socialist revolution; and most importantly it promised, â€Å"Land, peace and bread. [20] That was all the things that the PG had been to scared to do, as they waited for a Constituent Assembly. The July days followed the PG’s summer offensive and were another key reason for the PG’s downfall. On 3rd July there were military uprisings against the army’s poor attempt at an offensive against the Germans on the western front. Ther e were 400,000 casualties and this failure played into the hands of the Bolsheviks and made the PG look very bad for initiating the offensive. On the 4th July 20,000 sailors embarked on the city from Kronstadt naval base. As the PG was to blame all the protestors wanted the soviet to take power. However when the soviet refused to do so they crowds were not sure what to do, and were restricted by the 176 regiment who were used to protect the government. This emphasises the opinions towards the PG and is another example of a poor decision made by them which pushed them closer to being overthrown. However the July days also had a knock on effect on the Bolsheviks, because it was not uccessful in overthrowing the PG people wanted someone to blame and that person was Lenin. However some historians such as Figes argue that Lenin did not actually have any role in organising the uprising. [21] The Kornilov affair was another example of outside pressure which resulted in a large loss of support for the PG and gave the Bolsheviks a more convincing role in the country as they gained support and spread the word of another revolution. By the end of August Kerensky felt that the only course open to him was to restore law and order in the cities and to boost moral and discipline within the army. In doing so he hoped he could put pressure back on the Bolsheviks and potentially deal with any threat that they were to present. Kerensky appointed General Kornilov as new supreme commander of the Russian forces to try and boost moral. However General Kornilov had other ideas that emphasise his poor political mind and it rubbed off very badly on the PG and Kerensky. Kornilov felt that in his new position he could rally soldiers and he saw this as an opportunity to crush the radical socialists and restore military order through counter revolution. However Kerensky realised this and had to call for help from both the Petrograd Soviet and Bolsheviks which reinforced the public’s suspicions that they could not effectively govern Russia. Conclusion: There is a lot of evidence that supports both arguments: that the PG was doomed from the beginning and that it was outside pressure that resulted in their collapse in October 1917. There are also various historians who support these arguments. Evidence suggesting that the PG was doomed from the beginning is supported by famous historians such as Orlando Figes and Beryll Williams who agree with the Structuralist School. Important factors such as the immediate demands from peasants and workers were too strong for the PG to handle appropriately and they made a grave mistake in ignoring them. â€Å"The problem was that the peasant’s restraint was not rewarded. The PG procrastinated over the land question. †[22] This was also the case when they tried to deal with the national minorities demands and this to had severe consequences resulting in a great loss of support and members. On the contrary however there is lots of evidence that supports the counter argument, stating that the PG collapsed under outside pressure put on them throughout their rule. Issues such as the War and Bolshevik movement made the situation even harder and it became too much pressure for the PG to cope with. Also the increasing demands from peasants and workers after the PGs initial ignorance became much stronger and became a real problem for them which they failed to cope with. After looking in detail at both responses it is clear that the PG inherited problems however it was their inability to deal with these problems that immediately put them under a lot of pressure and made it much more difficult for them to consolidate power. This initial hesitance tied the PGs hands behind their back and because the internal problems had not been dealt with by April they had no chance against the external threat from the Bolsheviks who were bent on their destruction. It can also be argued that the PG although being seen as the rulers of Russia did not actually do anything to meet any of the peasants of workers demands and did nothing to increase the standards of Russia at all. As Bernard Paves wrote: â€Å"The PG, although acknowledged as such for eight months cannot be said to actually have ruled Russia. [23] Bibliography †¢ Bernard Paves – A History of Russia (published 1947 in London) †¢ John Bradley – The Russian Revolution (published 1988 in London) †¢ Beryl Williams – Lenin, Profiles in Power (published 2000 in London) †¢ Robert Service – Stalin, a Bibliography (published2004 in London) †¢ Richard Pipes – Russia Under the Old Regime (published1974 in Grea t Britain) †¢ Leon Troski – Stalin (published 1947 in London) †¢ Orlando Figes – A Peoples Tragedy (published 1996 in London) †¢ Orlando Figes – The Whisperers (published in London) Chris Ward – Stalin’s Russia (first published 1993, second edition 1999 in London) †¢ Chris Corin, Terry Feihn – Communist Russia Under Lenin and Stalin (Published 2002 in London) †¢ Tamara Pimlott – The Russian Revolution (first published 1985 in London) †¢ Caroline Kennedy – Russia and the World (first published 1998 in Great Britain) †¢ Philip. E. Mosley – www. emayzine. com/lectures/russianrev †¢ https://mars. wnec. edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/rev1917 †¢ Beryl Williams – new perspective Volume 1. Number 2. (December 1995) †¢ En. wikipedia. org/wiki/russian_Provisional_Govt Annotated Bibliography Bernard Paves – A History of Russia (published 1947 in London): This book was useful as it gave me an insightful view of this period in history and gave me an in depth structuralist opinion. John Bradley – The Russian Revolution (published 1988 in London): This book was useful as it gave me a greater understanding of some of the different opinions that surround this topic. Beryl Williams – Lenin, Profiles in Power (published 2000 in London): This was useful as it gave me a wider conception of Lenin’s involvement in the destruction of the Provisional Government. Robert Service – Stalin, a Bibliography (published 2004 in London): This book provided me with an array of quotes and deepened my understanding of the Provisional Governments policies and mistakes. Richard Pipes – Russia Under the Old Regime (published 1974 in Great Britain): Gave me an insight to the Bolshevik policies that lead up to the Provisional Governments downfall. Leon Troski – Stalin (published 1947 in London): This book was very interesting and gave me a look at the lead up to Stalin’s reign which was the downfall of the Provisional Government. Orlando Figes – A Peoples Tragedy (published 1996 in London): Was very interesting and gave the views of the population of Russia along with the policies and thoughts of the leading bodies in Russia. Orlando Figes – The Whisperers (published in London): This book gave me more back ground knowledge about the topic and helped me understand some of the reasons behind the revolutions of 1917. Chris Ward – Stalin’s Russia (first published 1993, second edition 1999 in London): This book was helpful because it gave me a lot of statistics and views that emphasised some of the main points throughout the Provisional Governments reign. Chris Corin, Terry Feihn – Communist Russia Under Lenin and Stalin (Published 2002 in London): Gave in more detail some of the main points behind Lenin’s campaign and how he managed to overthrow the Provisional Government. Also was helpful in other parts of the course. Tamara Pimlott – The Russian Revolution (first published 1985 in London): Was helpful in giving me quotes and facts throughout the middle months of the Provisional Governments reign, things such as the July days and onwards to October. Caroline Kennedy – Russia and the World (first published 1998 in Great Britain): Some information about the day the Bolsheviks seized power from the Provisional Government at the Tauride Palace. Philip. E. Mosley – www. emayzine. com/lectures/russianrev: This book was useful as it gave me information about the members of all the parties and some of the internal problems the Provisional Government faced. https://mars. wnec. edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/rev1917: Gave me an overview of the topic and helped me understand the bases of the Provisional Government leadership. Beryl Williams – new perspective Volume 1. Number 2. (December 1995): This article was useful as it provides some quotes and helped me understand the role of Kerensky better. En. wikipedia. org/wiki/russian_Provisional_Govt: Gave me an overview of the year and put all the events into context whilst giving some opinions of popular historians. ———————– [1] A time from March to April where the Provisional Government could have satisfied the people and had they done so would have been able to consolidate their power however they failed to do so. 2] Slogan used by Lenin to rile up the people of Russia and undermine the Provisional Government prior to overthrowing them. [3] John Bradley, The Russian Revolution, London (1988) p56 [4] Robert Service, Stalin, a bibliography, London (2004) p129 [5] Phillip. E. Mosley www. emayzine. com/lectures/russiarev [6] Orlando Figes, A Peoples Tragedy, London (1996) [7] Richard Pipes, The Rus sian Revolution, New York (1990) [8] Bernard Paves, A History of Russian, London (1947) p531 [9] Mosley www. emayzine. om/lectures/russiarev [10] Mosley, www. emayzine. com/lectures/russiarev [11] Beryl Williams, Lenin, profiles in power , London (2000) p63 [12] Robert Darby agrees with the Structuralist School. Argues it was the ignorance of Provisional Government that resulted in their failure. [13] Williams, Lenin, profiles in power, p 63 [14] Figes, A people tragedy [15] Mosley, www. emayzine. com/lectures/russianrev [16] Paves, A History of Russia, p 533 [17] Kowalski, Russian Revolution 1917-1921, p 133 18] Kowalski, Russian Revolution 1917-1921, p 134 [19] Mosley, www. emayzine. com/lectures/russianrev [20] Quote from Lenin’s April thesis emphasises how Lenin gave them exactly what they wanted. [21] Figes, A Peoples Tragedy [22] Kowalski Russian Revolution 1917-1921, p 133 [23] Paves A History of Russia, p 532 ———————â⠂¬â€œ Word count: 350 Word count: 403 Word count: 478 Word count: 260 Word count: 439 Word count: 167 Word count: 431 Word count: 434 Word Count: 442 Word count: 222 Word count: 373

Play (Sophocles Antigone) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Play (Sophocles Antigone) - Essay Example This never comes too well for the elder son a factor that draws them into war. As a result of the war, the two sons die meaning that none wins the battle (Brian 1). Kingship is taken by their uncle who is biased over, the two sons substantiated, by his refusal, to bury the body of one son. This neglect leads to numerous consequences with the death his son, wife and the daughter in law. In my opinion, Creon appears to have been in support of the younger king, Eteocles. This is because he shows no intentions of burying the older son. He seems in support of the younger son being the king even though in the real sense, it is wrong for the young son to obtain kingship in the presence of the elder son. Creon talks about honoring the younger son even though in the real sense, he is the cause of the war between him and his older brother. Providing with such recognition has no basis provided these two sons did something wrong in engaging in the war. Creon has personal reasons for not burying Polyneices, and this is the same reason he prevents Antigone, and Ismene from burying Polyneices. Bearing these personal matters makes Creon show more concern to the Eteocles than to Polyneices. Creon wants to make the populaces believe that the elder son is on the wrong although this is not true in the real sense. Creon feels offended, by Antigone and Ismene offering, to bury their brother contrary to his directions. Creon feels insulted since the two go in front of Thebes, and try to bury their brother even after he has provided a final judgment concerning, the burial of Polyneices. Further to that, Ismene disobeys her and she is a woman a thing that makes Creon so angry that he decides to execute the two. In my view, the younger son would have surrendered kingship to the elder son as traditions assume instead of using force and influence to lead the populace in which one is not chosen by

Internet Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Internet Marketing - Essay Example Customers too see brands as something that is more than what is built into the product. But these values and meanings may be different from customer to customer or from one group of customers to another. While Aaker is of the opinion that brand values are expressed along these four dimensions others like Jean - Noel Kapferer are of the opinion that this expression is along six dimensions: Physique, relationship, reflection, personality, culture and self-concept. (Kapferer 2000, p.127) Brand identity is made up of a core identity and an extended identity. A brand's core identity is fundamental to the meaning of a product. It is what a business will want its product or service to be perceived as. The extended identity of a brand includes aspects of the brand that complete the picture. This will normally be, aspects of the brand that a business will want its target market to associate with. Everything a brand stands for cannot be communicated merely by its core identity. This shortcoming of the core identity is made good by its extended identity. And the broader a brand's extended identity the more unforgettable it will be. (Aaker 1996, pp.85-9) The concept of brand identity brings us to ... It is what a business will want its product or service to be perceived as. The core identity of a brand helps a business to specifically identify the essence of a brand, organizational values that drive the brand, and what the organization itself stands for. It is what gives a brand its uniqueness and "sets it apart from competition". It is something that is relatively permanent. 3 Extended Identity The extended identity of a brand includes aspects of the brand that complete the picture. This will normally be, aspects of the brand that a business will want its target market to associate with. Everything a brand stands for cannot be communicated merely by its core identity. This shortcoming of the core identity is made good by its extended identity. And the broader a brand's extended identity the more unforgettable it will be. (Aaker 1996, pp.85-9) Brand Position The concept of brand identity brings us to the concept brand position. Brand position is that part of a brand's identity and its value proposition that a business intends to repeatedly communicate to its target market. It is the brand position that communicates an advantage over competition. All advertising is centered on a brand's position. (Aaker & Joachimsthaler 2000, pp.41-2) Brand Image While a brand's identity is what a manufacturer or distributor may want its target market to perceive it as, a brand's image is what the actual market perception. In wanting to communicate a brand's identity companies send out messages; it is how the market receives these messages and interprets them that are important. Although brand image is a lagging indicator, it helps the marketing department make corrections to its communications strategy if its

Econamy report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Econamy report - Essay Example The lack of coordination and differences in structure has caused some expensive problems over the years. Therefore a need arises for an organization which can improve this coordination between these partnerships. As mentioned this is a complex task of bringing two very different systems together in an efficient manner (Quiggin, 1996). That is why it is imperative that such an organization should be a PPP itself, so it could understand the delicacies of issues arising from such partnerships. Partnership UK is such an organization which has the sole purpose of making these PPP more successful. Being a PPP itself it can better understand the issues involved in Private Public partnerships. Private public partnerships have been given many names over the years and similarly their functions have varied across geography and time. These ventures can be called PPP or P3 etc. In essence private public partnerships are joint venture between government organizations and private bodies. These bodies are funded jointly by these two sectors. Usually these joint ventures take shapes of contracts between private parties and public sector organizations (Quiggin, 1996). Private parties provide services for the public sector and assume substantial financial operational and technical risk for the project. These contracts can be many forms, shapes and sizes. In some contracts service costs are not borne by the government and users are liable to pay for service use (Quiggin, 1996). In other agreements the government is liable to provide most or all of the cost being spent on a project. In other PPP projects private sectors makes the initial capital investment but the government or public sector is bound by contract to purchase services from the private sector. Another notable aspect of these projects is grants or subsidies given by the public sector to the private sector. These can be one time grants where a lump-sum amount is paid

Teen Pregnancy Nursing Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Teen Pregnancy Nursing - Term Paper Example Great numbers of teen pregnancies are unintentional. Access to contraceptive, complete education on sexuality and youth development programs can assist teens to choose their options that can guard them from pregnancy at this age. Parents with a busy life are unable to discuss important issues such as sex with their children. Due to the lack of proper guidance, these teenagers are unable to make wise decisions on this subject and this result into teen pregnancy. According to the Journal of Adolescent Health, majority of the teens who indulge in sexual activity are more possibly exposed to sexuality in the media. By glamorizing this, teenagers adapt this as something good and involves in irresponsible sexual activities. If it is something accepted in their group of friends or community, they may try to get pregnant as a means to get social acceptance (Laden et al 2006). A vast number of teenage girls who get pregnant have reported sexual abuse or rape. Sexual harassment leaves them in a state of shock and because of the fact that they have no idea how to proceed and avoid pregnancy many of them conceive. The teens that are more likely to have unintended pregnancy are those who are not educated about sex. Kids who start drinking in their teens are more likely to take other risks as well. This may involve crimes, careless sex and other dangerous activities that may have consequences. According to ‘teenage pregnancy: the interaction of psyche and culture’ many of the women who became mothers in their teens didn’t want it. It had happened because of lack of knowledge about how babies were conceived or they didn’t know or have access to methods of avoiding or aborting their pregnancies (Dean et al 1997). The socioeconomic factors which trigger teen pregnancies are poverty, illiteracy, and peer pressure. Early marriages are even a big factor resulting into this problem faced by young girls. These were some of the causes of teen pregnancy, now we would discuss its effects. There a lot of teenage mothers who ponder what would have happened if they would have been a little more precautious, hadn’t left school or what opportunities did they miss because of the pregnancy. Bringing a child into this world brings a great amount of responsibility on the shoulder of the parents, the baby needs a lot of attention and care that means their irresponsibility lead them away from their dreams and ambitions in life. â€Å"Women who become parents as teenagers are at greater risk of social and economic disadvantage throughout their lives than those who delay child bearing† (Hayes 1987, 138) A lot of teenage girls who get pregnant try to hide it as long as they can therefore are unaware of the care they require at this age. They are affected by malnutrition, depression and frustration that results in miscarriages, death during the delivery and weak babies. This emotional crisis can lead these teens to have something against their new born babies and they blame them for their lost possibilities in life. Kids born to teens most of the times go through emotional conflict, social insecurity and educational failures. ‘Single mothers with limited resources may be subject to multiple stresses in trying to provide such basic necessities as food or shelter, and, thus have little energy or time for their children†

Evaluation of Infection Control in Hospitals Essay

Evaluation of Infection Control in Hospitals - Essay Example The National Audit Office noted in its 2000 report that nine percent of all inpatients or one in every eleven inpatients in England had hospital acquired infection at any one time. This prevalence is higher than hospital acquired infections in Denmark (8%), Spain (8%), Netherlands (7%), Norway (7%) and Australia (6%). Only France (6-10%) and USA (5-10%) had higher incidence ranges (CPSO, 2004; Davis, 2005; POST, 2005). Furthermore, this figure is equivalent to approximately 100,000 hospital acquired infections per year. The effects of hospital acquired infections to patients range from minor discomfort to mortality in around 5,000 cases. These infections are considered as contributory factors to approximately 15,000 deaths a year (College of Nurses of Ontario, 2005; POST, 2005; Davis, 2005). A report by the Nosocomial Infection National Surveillance Service from 1997 to 1999, covering 96 hospitals in England showed 47 percent of microorganisms that cause surgical site infections were staphylococci. Eighty-one percent of these were Staphylococcus aureus and 61 percent were Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA) (CPSO, 2004; Davis, 2005; POST, 2005). All of these occurrences are attributed to o... In order to know the root of the problem which is the declining level of hygiene in hospitals, the sources and possible routes of infectious materials should be identified. Gaps and loopholes for the proper handling of such infection sources and vectors should be highlighted. Next, appropriate steps should be put in place that will answer these inefficiencies together with the responsible hospital staff for each task. Lastly, monitoring and maintenance systems should be developed to ensure long-term success in these efforts with emphasis on in any areas where improvements are needed (College of Nurses of Ontario, 2005; POST, 2005; Davis, 2005). Studies and information already available for the abovementioned factors will be reiterated here. However, this paper will focus on other areas where data are lacking and further research is warranted. More specifically, the role of social workers in the proliferation and solution of hospital acquired infections will be assessed. Furthermore, research gaps in this area will be identified towards the development of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. Epidemiology of Hospital Acquired Infections Hospital acquired infections are also referred to as nosocomial infections. These are infections that develop during the patient's stay in the hospital that were not previously present. There are two types of hospital acquired infections: autoinfection wherein the causative agent is inherently present in the patient but started to proliferate during confinement because of lowered resistance level, and cross-contamination wherein the causative agent comes from outside the patient which infects and develop during the patient's stay in the hospital (CPSO, 2004; Davis,

Mergers & Acquisitions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Mergers & Acquisitions - Essay Example Merger usually takes place when two companies join together as one company and both companies cease to exist as separate entities and a new entity is formed as a result. The example of DaimlerChrysler is most suitable here because this new business concern was formed by the merger of Daimler-Benz and Chrysler. It is also believed that mergers take place among or between equals. Practically however, the two or more companies are not always on equal grounds. Some times the companies undergoing a deal call the association as merger while in actuality it is an acquisition. The deal is a merger or an acquisition also depends on the circumstances. Friendly or hostile nature of the deal also becomes important. Irrespective of its nature the business deals of this kind greatly affect the board of directors, employees and shareholders. Apart from the distinction of mergers there also exist different forms of mergers. For example horizontal merger is one when companies sharing sharethe same product lines and markets join hands. When supplier and company merge it is termed vertical merger. Conglomeration happens when companies having different businesses come together. There re different reason given for the mergers and acquisition among companies but three hypotheses are very well known practically as well as theoretically. The synergy hypothesis, hubris hypothesis and managerialism hypothesis have been studied and different observations made regarding them. "The synergy hypothesis proposes that acquisitions take place when the value of the combined firm is greater than the sum of the values of the individual firms. Managers are assumed to be motivated by shareholders' interests to create economic value, and to have the ability to judge accurately the value potential of the combined firm. Other explanations do not assume value-maximizing behavior on the part of managers. The managerialism hypothesis suggests that managers embark on acquisitions to maximize their own utility at the expense of the shareholders of the firm. The hubris hypothesis suggests that bidding firm managers make mistakes in evaluating target firms, but undertake acquisitions presuming that their valuations are correct" (Pettit, Seth & Song, 2000). Synergy Hypothesis Two companies joined together may create the effect of three not two is the reason why most companies choose the path of mergers & acquisitions. The synergy is considered one of the main reasons. By mergers and acquisitions the companies seek to create more value for the shareholders. Synergy gets many benefits for the engaging companies. Most important benefits come in the form of revenue augmentation and cost savings. Due to staff reductions the company gets to save a lot. Especially, when one of the two CEO leaves the company with other employees they also forgo their expensive compensation packages causing huge reduction in costs. Economies of scales can be achieved by two companies together than separately. Relationship with suppliers also improves when stronger and larger groups negotiate. When placing orders for the company management can have a stronger position and as result could get better bargain. Some companies achieve an edge in a particular area by acquiring or merging another company. For example a small company having an edge in IT or any other scope of

MGT501 - Mgmt. and Org. Behavior session long project 3 (learning Essay

MGT501 - Mgmt. and Org. Behavior session long project 3 (learning styles.) - Essay Example This assessment took me by surprise and I must say it was a pleasant surprise. It’s good to know your own style of learning rather than assuming you are good in one style whereas that is not really your style. I think this assessment is a complete clear picture of me and my style and is clearly my actual style of learning. I do tend to be more productive when am verbal or social and also to a great extent Aural. These are definite strengths and will prove to be very helpful in a workplace or organization. The main reasons being, a) at a workplace training is mostly in groups rather than one on one, b) being verbal is helpful as it allows good expression of self and c) together they form a strong mix and allow for bettered performance. In any work place it is essential to be able to think in a logical manner and be able to grasp things in a group discussion. Hence I believe that the ability to learn in social as well as verbal manner is quite an effective combination and can be very useful in the work environment. Based on the results I do not think I need to improve myself in any area considering this completely in a managerial sense. I think the combination of being verbal and social will prove to make a dynamic combination in an organization. However to ensure that my overall competence is improved, I will work on learning all styles as this will be helpful to understand the others within the organization. I feel this tool is one of the best assessments for one and allows people to learn about their own learning styles in an effective manner. The assessment is to a great extent accurate and is very helpful when a person is unaware of their learning style. Also this allows the individuals to learn their lacking qualities and work on self improvement of these techniques and skills. Overall the assessment is very interesting, motivating and very

Digital Evidence and Search and Seizure Essay Example for Free

Digital Evidence and Search and Seizure Essay Gallant Computer Investigative Services, LLC1, provides computer forensic, electronic discovery, and incident response supports, as well as computer forensics training to law enforcement, IT professionals, and the legal community. Gallant Computer Investigative Services was founded by David Gallant, who has over 24 years of investigative experience, especially when he was serving as a federal agent with the Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI). He contributed to the initial investigative activity for one of the most successful computer hacker investigations in history. Following his retirement in 2001, he entered the corporate security world. Services Offered * Computer Forensics – GCIS provides systematic analysis of computer media using court and industry accepted software and techniques. They are mainly focused on criminal defense cases, theft of intellectual property, family law (divorce cases), probate cases (search for assets), violation of non-competition clauses, unauthorized use of corporate networks, and decryption of files. * Cell Phone Forensics – GCIS provides systematic analysis of cell phones and other portable devices. GCIS can forensically extract call history, SMS, images, internet browsing history, file system, phonebook, calendar, and stored media. * On-site Forensics – GCIS is able to bring or ship a complete forensic network to customer’s location. Services include forensic imaging of computers and cell phones, and forensic procession using Forensic Toolkit’s distributed processing network feature. GCIS owns recreational vehicle which can operate in remote regions where office space and lodging is non-existent. * Electronic Discovery, trainings, and other services. DataChasers About DataChasers2 is a small company and its team includes eight professionals who have specialized skills outside the normal realm of computer forensics and hold multiple certifications specific to computer forensics. Company was established in 1999 and operates mainly in California, however, they have cases in many areas of the south-western U.S. Computer forensics and e-discovery is their only business. DataChasers was founded by Rick Albee, who has been awarded for â€Å"Demonstrated Leadership and Achievement In the Field of Forensic Computer Evidence† in Who’s Who of America Small Business. Moreover, DataChasers was noted in a theft of intellectual properties case in the Forbes magazine. Services Offered * Computer Forensics – DataChasers provides recovering deleted files, e-mail recovery, tracing internet activity, surfing history, download history, and manipulation of data. DataChasers is also able to help in intellectual property cases, family law, employment law, probate resolution, asset verification, and criminal law as prosecution or defense. They are able to assist in court case by litigation support, trial preparation, experienced expert witnesses, and professional courtroom displays. * Cellular Forensics * E-discovery – DataChasers provides Electronically Stored Information (ESI) retrieval and production, turning paper hard-copy into searchable ESI format, consulting on data management, litigation support and trial preparation. * Expert Witness Testimony – DataChasers has the distinction of having served as Special Master to Federal Court, as well as being the expert in numerous Superior and Municipal courts. All DataChasers examiners have extensive litigation experience. Computer Forensic Services, Inc. About Computer Forensic Services, Inc.3 provides electronic discovery, forensic analysis, litigation support, and advisory and consultation services. Their expert forensic examiners include federally trained analysts who specialize in computer evidence and have many years of professional experience in both law enforcement and information technology. CFS’s CEO and Chief Technology Officer Mark Lanterman has over 11 years of law enforcement experience as a police investigator and is recognized as an expert witness. He received recognition in 2003 from Director of the U.S. Secret Service for his contributions to law enforcement. Services Offered * Electronic Discovery – CFS’s process of electronic discovery involves complex data manipulation and reduction utilizing sophisticated software tools and techniques. CFS has years of experience investigation complex cases and its process includes steps as data collection, data sifting, and presenting deliverables in a form that can be used by legal counsel. * Computer Forensics – This service consists of Forensic Imaging and Data Analysis Recovery. * Information Security – CFS provides a strategic, comprehensive security solution on current best-practices and on established security standards and regulations. These security services include discovery of current level of security, development of business-appropriate security environment, and monitoring security anomalies that could require reconfiguration or investigation. * Litigation Support * CLE Training – CLS provides CLE lectures for attorneys and staff. * Law Enforcement Support Conclusion I tried to list offered services of all three companies and find out whether there are some significant differences, but based on their webpages all companies provide almost the same services. Project 1-2 As I come from the Czech Republic, our jurisdiction is based on civil law system which is greatly different from common law system followed by the USA. Based on the article â€Å"Common Law vs. Civil Law†4, I list features of both these systems. Features of a common law system (USA) include * There is not always a written constitution or codified laws; * Judicial decisions are binding – decisions of the highest court can generally only be overturned by that same court or through legislation; * Extensive freedom of contract few provisions are implied into the contract by law (although provisions seeking to protect private consumers may be implied); * Generally, everything is permitted that is not expressly prohibited by law. Features of a civil law system (Czech Republic) include * There is generally a written constitution based on specific codes (e.g., civil code, codes covering corporate law, administrative law, tax law and constitutional law) enshrining basic rights and duties; administrative law is however usually less codified and administrative court judges tend to behave more like common law judges; * Only legislative enactments are considered binding for all. There is little scope for judge-made law in civil, criminal and commercial courts, although in practice judges tend to follow previous judicial decisions; constitutional and administrative courts can nullify laws and regulations and their decisions in such cases are binding for all. * Courts specific to the underlying codes – there are therefore usually separate constitutional court, administrative court and civil court systems that opine on consistency of legislation and administrative acts with and interpret that specific code; * Less freedom of contract many provisions are implied into the contract by law and parties cannot contract out of certain provisions. In Czech law system there is generally a written constitution based on specific codes and precedent principle is not established. Based on paper â€Å"The Criminal Justice System in the Czech Republic†5, Criminal law in the Czech Republic is for the most part codified in one act called Criminal Code which is being continuously updated. Current version (only in Czech) is accessible from this address: http://portal.gov.cz/app/zakony/zakonPar.jsp?page=0idBiblio=68040fulltext=nr=40~2F2009part=name=rpp=15#local-content. Project 1-3 To be a successful computer forensics investigator, I have to be familiar with more than one computing platform. However, no one can be expert in every aspect, it’s important to develop my own network of professionals. I would begin by looking for groups of professional investigators in my surrounding for example Computer Technology Investigators Network (CTIN) and Technology Crime Investigation Association (HTCIA). I would start attending theirs meetings and try to become a member. Then if you are a member of one of these user groups, you get more credibility and can start share your experience, offer your skills, and try to maintain contacts by other professionals through e-mail. I think the best way how to find whether they are legitimate, is to discuss their experience and get recommendation for them from another people. References 1. Gallant Computer Investigative Services, LLC (GCIS). Available at: http://www.whatsonthecomputer.com. Accessed August 30, 2012. 2. DataChasers INC. Available at: http://www.datachaserscomputerforensics.com. Accessed August 31, 2012. 3. Computer Forensic Services, Inc. Available at: http://www.compforensics.com. Accessed August 31, 2012. 4. Key Features of Common Law or Civil Law Systems. PPP in Infrastructure Resource Center for Contracts, Laws and Regulation. Available at: http://ppp.worldbank.org/public-private-partnership/legislation-regulation/framework-assessment/legal-systems/common-vs-civil-law. Accessed September 1, 2012. 5. The Criminal Justice System in the Czech Republic. Available at: http://www.ok.cz/iksp/en/docs/s279.pdf. Accessed September 1, 2012. 6. Nelson B, Amelia P, Enfinger F, et al. Guide to Computer Forensics and Investigations. 3rd Edition, Thomson Course Technology; 2008:8-9.

Small Group Communication

Small Group Communication Leon Hulse, Mike Hugo, Lily Purimitla, Laura Straub, Ju Hee Shin, Rachel Quick,Danny Yip AJ. Shawna Warner Group Research Paper: Group Ethics Throughout this semester, the Small Group Communication class has been studying various topics regarding the different aspects of groups. Groups, to most living individuals, is an important concept that penetrates our lives in many different ways. We have friend groups, family groups, work groups, project groups, and even game groups. Regardless of our willingness, the concept of groups will always be a major part of life. With that said, it is crucial for each individual to understand the different aspects of a group, which is the foundation behind this research paper. This paper is written with the intention of gaining an insight on the different features of groups and to demonstrate the application of theories learned in class. The paper will begin with ethical leadership, which is followed by a discussion on personal ethics in group decision making, and will end with multicultural group ethics. Ethical Leadership Leaders can be categorized into different groups according to behaviours and, in most occasions, it is not only the leader who defines the nature of leadership, but also those who are actively participating within the team that alter leadership behaviour. Gary Yukl in his book Leadership in Organizations writes about three different types of leadership behaviour: task-oriented, relations-oriented and participative leadership (Yukl 107-08). In an ideal setting, a leader would have a balance between all these behaviours. However, most of the time Now, we know that in order to be able to lead and direct ethically, one must understand the responsibility and the core meaning of what ethical leadership is. Ethics is a principle of conduct that acts to govern those who are under it (Ethic). In order to understand ethical leadership it is important to first understand the meaning of ethics and how culture of an organization highly affects it. Ethical leadership can be seen as the code of conduct, laws, policies and values that leaders follow in order to emphasize a concern for the interest of others and respecting the members as not just instruments in the group, but as whole and complete members of the team. With that, four theories of Ethical Leadership will be discussed in this section, which include ethical pluralism, communitarianism, authentic leadership and transformational leadership. First, the term ethical pluralism refers to a formed idea that there are numerous ways of defining what is morally right or wrong, and not all of them will match an individuals personal norms (Ethical Pluralism). This implies that pluralism does not refer to several perspectives of the same thing but, in general, having several theories according to different leaders and settings. Moreover, this theory advances that there is a plurality of moral norms that cannot be reduced to one basic norm (Schaber 1). Next, the paper will discuss the idea of communitarianism. Inthe Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, it is stated that communitarians argued that the standards of justice must be found in forms of life and traditions of particular societies and hence can vary from context to context (Bell). This means that both the views of people and leaders in a group are dependent on the various interpretations of the societies they belong to. This theory focuses more on the rights of the group as a whole rather than the individuals in a group (Communitarian Ethics). A leader who employs this approach emphasises the common good of all people, recognising all the dimensions of a living human being in a society. A communitarian leader encourages moral reasoning, ethical dialogue, collaborative leadership and development of moral character. The next topic to be addressed is that of authentic leadership. Leaders who fully believe in themselves and trust their ability as they are true to themselves are known as authentic leaders. Moreover, these leaders allow and empower group development by encouraging individual members. This theory believes that an authentic leader should possess certain characteristics. Michael Hyatt, author of Authentic Leadership, writes that an authentic leader possesses insight, demonstrates initiative, exudes influence, has impact in his or her action and manifests integrity (Hyatt). There are still more features of an authentic leader as the context of the leaders culture plays a vital role in determining the leadership traits. The final theory of ethical leadership is transformational leadership. This is defined as a leadership approach that causes change in individuals and social systems. It is a relatively new approach to leadership that focuses on how leaders can create valuable and positive change in their followers, writes David Burkus in his article Transformational Leadership Theory.We can infer that this theory is helpful in leaders who are of the new age; leaders who are able to use traditional methods and theories to purposefully transform them for the betterment of the team or any setting they are a part of. With that, this research paper has finished its discussion on ethical leadership, which includes the four elements of ethical pluralism, communitarianism, authentic leadership and transformational leadership. These are, in short, basic theories that aid in understanding ethical leadership and how leaders can carefully employ one or multiple aforementioned theories to improve the performance and effectiveness of a system. Personal Ethics in Group Decision Making Writing in the context of organizational communication, Pamela Shockley-Zalabak identified decision-making as one of the most important functions of a group (252). However, good decision-making requires sound information (262), which in turn requires that group members communicate not only effectively (262), but also ethically (117). Shockley-Zalabak describes four habits of ethical communication that can be applied in most communicative situations (117). The first of these habits, which were developed by Rebecca Rubin and Jess Yoder based on work by Karl Wallace, is called the Habit of Search (117). This habit explores the idea of detailed research, working as a type of magnifying glass to analyze information that is taken into the group. Using this technique, groups can excavate into information received to decipher the smallest details so as not to miss any important facts. This can be used in decision making to analyze the problems that the group is facing, especially in regards to highly controversial issues. The idea here is that issues should not be oversimplified and should be looked at in all their parts. Tying this into ethics, the implementation of this habit leaves less room for faulty or inaccurate information. Each issue is looked at extensively through this lens to ensure there is no discrepancies in the facts received. The second habit is called the Habit of Justice (117). This habit also has to do with analysis of information, but on a different level. This habit allows for a much broader research database. There is more openness to different kinds of sources of information. The focus is not so much on specific information received as on the range of diverse accurate information. The focus here is more on the ethical side of making sure that all information is accurately portrayed and is fairly examined. This habit does not allow for discrimination, bias, or prejudice in regards to the evaluation of information. The main point is for the meaning of the information to remain undistorted by the opinions or bias of individuals. As in the name, justice and truth or accuracy are very important factors here. The third habit is called the habit of public versus private motivations (117). This habit is concerned primarily with transparency. It suggests that the ethical course of action during communication is to be open about motives and agendas and to clearly identify any potential for bias, conflicts of interest, or other factors that could exert an influence on the speakers perspective. It could also be as simple as identifying where a piece of information comes from. This allows the group to assign the information the proper weight in their discussion, rather than relying too heavily on biased information. For example, a group member who is closely related to one of the candidates under consideration by the group for interviewing for a class project should let the relationship be known. The final habit is respect for dissent (117). This means that rather than viewing different perspectives as threats and trying to squash them, the individual welcomes and even encourages them. By taking time to consider all aspects of the problem or explore more options for the decision, the group is better able to come to a solid solution or make an informed decision, rather than settling on a less effective course of action too quickly. Having a group atmosphere where it is safe and accepted to voice contrary viewpoints also helps to avoid groupthink (Rothwell 254). An example of this would be for a planning committee to consider suggestions for alternative dates for an event. By considering all factors, they could avoid causing scheduling conflicts or inconveniences that might have been overlooked if they just went with the first suggestion. Shockley-Zalabak summarized these habits in this way: Ethical communication behaviors promote participation, transparency, and accountability and support courageous actions (118). Practicing these habits in small group communication will not guarantee a good decision, but it will at least lay the foundations for good decision-making. Multicultural Group Ethics The meaningful success that can result from a diverse group of individuals has been a topic researched and challenged by many scholars throughout the years. Diversity extends itself across a wide spectrum that includes differences in ethnicities, gender, age, background, experiences, values, and culture (Rothwell 84). Everyone may approach one given situation differently, especially within an intercultural setting or when one set of ethics meets another. Ethics exist at the core of a person, the moral principles that govern ones own behavior (Ethic). In addition, ethics refers to the personal overarching moral perspectives derived from philosophical or religious instruction or inform our day-to-day behavior (Knapp). The challenge that this topic presents is how does ethics exist in a multicultural group? A researcher in multicultural studies, Malcolm MacDonald, has noted a shift in ones self-consciousness as they begin to recognize differences in beliefs, attitudes and values that are present in a multicultural setting. He suggests two things can happen at this point, either one can tolerate these differences or embrace these differences (MacDonald 3). Multicultural educators are often found teaching these practices in order to create the needed cohesion within multicultural settings/groups. On the other hand, other researchers have identified the commonality of discrimination and rejection of individuals that takes place based on ones differences and beliefs (Kymlicka 153). Albeit, these three options of tolerating, embracing, or rejecting the differences found in others, leads into the concept of the overall ethics of a group. Ones own personal ethics will undoubtedly directly influence the ethics of a group. For example, Jane is a part of a multicultural group that has agreed upon not disclosing any of the groups information until after the work has been presented to the public. In doing this, each member will be showing their loyalty to all the other group members. This is a sign of the group creating its own set of ethics. Jane immediately agreed upon this notion because loyalty remains within her personal ethics. Within Janes culture, there is a strong ethical code of truthfulness that she stands strong beside. During a group meeting, there was discussion on having just one person do the groups entire work even though there were specific instructions that one person did not do all of the work. Following this, the group went ahead with just one person doing all of the work and reported at the end that everyone did their own part. Through this process, Jane rejected this group ethic by refusing to agree upon this, however, the group just continued onward. An important aspect within multicultural group ethics is creating a safe place where each member has confidence within the group that ideas will not be torn down or dismissed for any given reason. However, a group ethic of trust can be built to ensure that everyone feels comfortable to share his or her thoughts. Creating an open place for communication to take place. Stepping outside of one individuals viewpoint for the success of the group is key -as long as it is not harmful-one must remember to never dismiss who they truly are and what they believe in the process. Indeed, multicultural group ethics requires communication from all group members in order for success to take place. Creating an open place for multicultural differences to weave themselves in the overall group for its success is a process whereby the group creates its own set of ethics that will lead all of its members down a united path. Conclusion Once again, this paper is written so that insights regarding the various aspects of a group can be gained. This paper began by pondering the topic of ethical leadership and four theories derived from this particular topic. Next, the paper analyzed the topic of personal ethics in group decision making based on the work produced by Shockley-Zalabak and several other scholars. To end, the paper examined multicultural group ethic, which meditates on the idea of creating a diverse yet harmonious group; a group that develops its own set of ethics that will allow all members to remain unified. Lastly, it must be emphasized yet again that the concept of group will always be present in many aspects of our lives. Therefore, it is of utmost significance that an individual seeks to understand this concept to the best of his or her ability. Works Cited Bell, Daniel. Communitarianism. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Summer 2016 ed., edited by Edward N. Zalta, 21 Mar. 2016, plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2016/ entries/communitarianism. Accessed 2 Mar. 2017. Burkus, David. Transformational Leadership Theory. David Burkus.com, 18 Mar. 2010, davidburkus.com/2010/03/transformational-leadership-theory. Accessed 9 Mar. 2017. Communitarian Ethics. Regis University, rhchp.regis.edu/HCE/EthicsAtAGlance/ CommunitarianEthics/CommunitarianEthics_01.html. Accessed 15 Mar. 2017. Ethic. Merriam-Webster, www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethic. Accessed 3 Mar. 2017. Ethical Leadership Theories. SlideShare, uploaded by catsfood, 8 Mar. 2012, www.slideshare.net/catsfood/ethical-leadership-theories. Accessed 14 Mar. 2017. Ethical Pluralism. The EIESL Project, 2011, ethicsofisl.ubc.ca/?page_id=180. Accessed 9 Mar. 2017. Hyatt, Michael. Authentic Leadership: The Five Characteristics of Effective Leaders. MichaelHyatt.com, michaelhyatt.com/authentic-leadership-overview. Accessed 9 Mar. 2017. Knapp, Samuel. Ethics, Diversity, and Multiculturalism. Ethicalpsychology.com, 31 Oct. 2011, www.ethicalpsychology.com/2011/10/ethics-diversity-and- multiculturalism.html.ÂÂ   Accessed 5 Mar. 2017. Kymlicka, Will. Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights. Oxford U, 1995, books.google.co.th/books/about/Multicultural_Citizenship.html?id=w5Kaqqy- W78Credir_esc=y. Accessed 4 Mar. 2017. MacDonald, Malcolm N. The Ethics of Intercultural Communication. Original manuscript, University of Warwick, 2012, wrap.warwick.ac.uk/39215/1/WRAP_Macdonald_ PubDocView.asp.pdf. Accessed 4 Mar. 2017. Rothwell, J. Dan. In Mixed Company: Communicating in Small Groups and Teams. 8th ed., Cengage, 2013. Schaber, Peter. Ethical Pluralism. University of Zurich, ethik.uzh.ch/static/afe/downloads/publikationen/schaber/Schaber_Pluralism.pdf. Accessed 14 Mar. 2017. Shockley-Zalabak, Pamela. Fundamentals of Organizational Communication: Knowledge, Sensitivity, Skills, Values. 8th ed., Pearson, 2012. Yukl, Gary. Leadership in Organizations, 7th ed., Global ed., Pearson, 2010, corenet.org.pk/js/Gary-Yukl-Leadership-in-Organizations.pdf. Accessed 2 Mar. 2017.

Communism: America Denies Freedoms to its Citizens :: American America History

Communism: America Denies Freedoms to its Citizens We fight for freedom abroad, but deny it to those at home.   The 1920s presents a perfect example -- the U.S. was just finishing WWI in which they fought for freedom in a foreign country, but right after the war they denied freedom to those on their home front.   Our Constitution should protect its citizen’s rights and freedoms, and then it can stop when we all realize that the Constitution is just a piece of paper.   It has no bearing unless it is written upon the hearts of government officials and they choose to follow these laws.   And from the past one should realize that this is not always possible.   As for the 1920s, the U.S. government became tyrannical over its people denying them such freedoms as speech and the right to a lawyer.   This leads to the question â€Å"Was the U.S. justified to infringe on the freedoms of others?† The Palmer Raids happened in direct correlation to events that occurred on the first of May 1919.   On May 1, several packages were delivered by the United States Postal Service to several prominent figures including judges, senators and businessmen.   One such package was delivered to Senator Thomas Hardwick of Georgia.   Ethel Williams his personal secretary went outside and received the package.   As she proceeded to open the packages, the package exploded, blowing off her two arms and nearly killing her (Hoyt 4). While this bomb did incite some government officials to fear Communists, the bombing that put them over the top happened to Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer.   Palmer and other politicians were sitting in the library of Palmer’s house when they heard an explosion.   All the members of this gathering exited outside and discovered it had been a bomb; only this time the person did not set the fuse correctly and died when the bomb went off.   They found the victim’s body with literature that read, â€Å"There will be bloodshed; we will not dodge; there will have to be murder; we will kill, because it is necessary; we will destroy to rid the world of your tyrannical institutions†Ã‚   (Hoyt 31). Instead of Palmer going after the person or persons whom directly planned the bombing, he went after everyone who had any association with the organizations the person or persons were part of.   He blamed a whole group for the action of one.

Graham Greenes The Human Factor Essay -- Graham Greene Human Factor

Graham Greene's The Human Factor "Love was a total risk. Literature had always so proclaimed it. Tristan, Anna Karenina, even the lust of Lovelace - he had glanced at the last volume of Clarissa [13]." People are torn apart from one another simply because of a lack of understanding or a difference in each individual's definition of life. The highest hopes, dreams, and aspirations of one person may be trivial in the eyes of another. The way that one would define love, good, and evil could very well be the exact opposite of another's definition. To one society or culture, a man may seem to be a god because of his beliefs and values; while, to another, that man may appear to be a devil. In his The Human Factor, Graham Greene makes the reader question his or her own values and definitions while following the fast-paced and mysterious life of an English double agent. The binding power of love, the true determent of evil and the cleansing force of good are shown to be all in the eye of the beholder. As Castle, who could e asily be paralleled to both the author and the legendary and fictitious James Bond, says in the novel, love of anything is a total risk. But, it is that binding power of love, whether it is love of another or love of a country or society, that acts as a stabilizing force in society's comprehension and balance of good and evil. The character of Castle is as complex as his interpretation of the meanings of love, good, and evil as well as the connection between the three entities. Throughout the entire novel, Greene plays on the reader's assumption that Castle is not the double-agent. More importantly, he is perhaps the only character in the novel that the reader instantly associates with and perce... ...ions are just like those of Castle in the novel. Therefore, it is almost plausible to conclude that Greene personified himself as Castle. Since Castle seems to believe that he is the perfect spy or hero - James Bond, then Greene also believes this about himself. The beliefs of Castle would then be representative of Greene. By taking advantage of man's natural tendencies to apply their knowledge of good, evil, and love to any given situation, Greene has made a spy mystery that requires the reader to challenge his or her own definitions. The simple story of a lone crusader in the sea of enemies becomes a battle between good and evil, God and the Devil, and love and hate through the mastery of Greene's poetic hand. In the words of Davis, the reader has become "an actor who has been miscast: when he tried to live up to the costume, he... fumbled the part" [4].

College Pressure

â€Å"What's wrong with the students of today? Back when I was a student we had a better attitude! † Criticisms like this are often heard from parents and teachers, in the newspapers and other media? And it's been that way ever since education began. No matter what society or era you consider, there are always plenty of wise authorities pointing out that â€Å"The students of today† are somehow failing to grasp the true meaning of university education. Or maybe it's the other way around: Are universities failing to grasp the true meaning of students? This text examines different aspects of this question and discusses the many pressures that modern students face. College  Pressures William Zinsser I am master of Branford College at Yale. I live on the campus and know the students well. (We have 485 of them. ) I listen to their hopes and fears — and also to their stereo music and their piercing cries in the dead of night (â€Å"Does anybody care? â€Å"). They come to me to ask how to get through the rest of their lives. Mainly I try to remind them that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don't want to hear such news. They want a map — right now — that they can follow directly to career security, financial security, social security and, presumably, a prepaid grave. What I wish for all students is some release from the grim grip of the future. I wish them a chance to enjoy each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a tiresome requirement in preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as educational as victory and is not the end of the world. My wish, of course, is naive. One of the few rights that America does not proclaim is the right to fail. Achievement is the national god, worshipped in our media — the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive — and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old. I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It's easy to look around for bad guys — to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no bad guys, only victims. Today it is not unusual for a student, even one who works part time at college and full time during the summer, to have accumulated $5,000 in loans after four years — loans that the student must start to repay within one year after graduation (and incidentally, not all these loans are low-interest, as many non-students believe). Encouraged at the commencement ceremony to go forth into the world, students are already behind as they go forth. How can they not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? Women at Yale are under even more pressure than men to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society hasn't yet caught up with this fact. Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined. I see students taking premedical courses with joyless determination. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know them in other corners of their life as cheerful people. â€Å"Do you want to go to medical school? † I ask them. â€Å"I guess so,† they say, without conviction, or, â€Å"Not really. †    â€Å"Then why are you going? † â€Å"My parents want me to be a doctor. They're paying all this money and †¦ †   Ã‚   Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin from the very start of freshman year. I had a freshman student I'll call Linda,† one instructor told me, â€Å"who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I couldn't tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda. † The story is almost funny — except that it's not . It's a symptom of all the pressures put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they could sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the rattling of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: â€Å"Will I get everything done? †   Ã‚  Ã‚   Probably they won't. They will get sick. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out. I've painted too grim a portrait of today's students, making them seem too solemn. That's only half of their story; the other half is that these students are nice people, and easy to like. They're quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They're more considerate of one another than any student generation I've ever known. If I've described them primarily as driven creatures who largely ignore the joyful side of life, it's because that's where the problem is — not only at Yale but throughout American education. It's why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age. I tell students that there is no one â€Å"right† way to get ahead — that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell them that change is healthy and that people don't have to fit into pre-arranged slots. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. I invite heads of companies, editors of magazines, politicians, Broadway producers, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians — a mixed bag of achievers. I ask them to say a few words about how they got started. The students always assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. But in fact, most of them got where they are by a circuitous route, after many side trips. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not preplanned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to lead them down some unforeseen trail. College Pressures by William Zinsser( , ) , , , Dear Carlos: I desperately need a dean's excuse for my chem midterm which will begin in about 1 hour. All I can say is that I totally blew it this week. I've fallen incredibly, inconceivably behind. Carlos: Help! I'm anxious to hear from you. I'll be in my room and won't leave it until I hear from you. Tomorrow is the last day for †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. Carlos: I left town because I started bugging out again. I stayed up all night to finish a take-home make-up exam and am typing it to hand in on the 10th. It was due on the 5th. P. S. I'm going to the dentist. Pain is pretty bad. Carlos: Probably by Friday I'll be able to get back to my studies. Right now I'm going to take a long walk. This whole thing has taken a lot out of me. Carlos: I'm really up the proverbial creek. The problem is I really bombed the history final. Since I need that course for my major I †¦. Carlos: Here follows a tale of woe. I went home this weekend, had to help my Mom, and caught a fever so didn't have much time to study. My professor †¦.. Carlos: Aargh!! Trouble. Nothing original but everything's piling up at once. To be brief, my job interview †¦.. Hey Carlos, good news! I've got mononucleosis. Who are these wretched supplicants, scribbling notes so laden with anxiety, seeking such miracles of postponement and balm? They are men and women who belong to Branford College, one of the twelve residential colleges at Yale University, and the messages are just a few of the hundreds that they left for their dean, Carlos Hortas — often slipped under his door at 4 a. m. — last year. But students like the ones who wrote those notes can also be found on campuses from coast to coast — especially in New England, and at many other private colleges across the country that have high academic standards and highly motivated students. Nobody could doubt that the notes are real. In their urgency and their gallows humor they are authentic voices of a generation that is panicky to succeed. My own connection with the message writers is that I am master of Branford College. I live in its Gothic quadrangle and know the students well. (We have 485 of them. ) I am privy to their hopes and fears — and also to their stereo music and their piercing cries in the dead of night (â€Å"Does anybody ca-a-are? â€Å"). If they went to Carlos to ask how to get through tomorrow, they come to me to ask how to get through the rest of their lives. Mainly I try to remind them that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don't want to hear such liberating news. They want a map — right now — that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, social security and, presumably, a prepaid grave. What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world. My wish, of course, is naive. One of the few rights that America does not proclaim is the right to fail. Achievement is the national god, venerated in our media — the million dollar athlete, the wealthy executive — and the glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old. I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villians — to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are are no villians, only victims. â€Å"In the late 1960's,† one dean told me, â€Å"the typical question that I got from students was, ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world? ‘ or ‘How can I make a contribution? ‘ Today it's, ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them? Many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said, â€Å"They're trying to find an edge — the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal. † Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on pape r is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale's official system of grading, A means â€Å"excellent† and B means â€Å"very good. † Today, looking very good is no longer enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh, Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170 students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000. It's all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it's nice to think that admission officers are really reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with A's that they regard a B as positively shameful. The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the â€Å"gentlemen's C,† when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses — music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion — that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would employ graduates who have this range and curiousity rather than those who narrowly purused safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I don't know if they are getting A's or C's, and I don't care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They can't. Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now comes to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60% of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what colleges receive in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs higher every year, of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in America the creation of a brotherhood of paupers — colleges, parents and students, joined by the common bond of debt. Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part-time at college and full-time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years — loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used â€Å"he,† incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themsleves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society hasn't yet caught up with that fact. Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined. I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know them in other corners of their life as cheerful people. â€Å"Do you want to go to medical school? I ask them. â€Å"I guess so,† they say, without conviction, or â€Å"Not really. † â€Å"Then why are you going? † â€Å"Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They're paying all this money and †¦ † Poor students, poor parents. They are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean well; they are trying to steer their sons and daughters toward a secure future. But the so ns and daughters want to major in history or classics or philosophy — subjects with no â€Å"practical† value. Where's the payoff on the humanities? It's not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do, indeed, pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics — an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective — are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many thaters would rather put their money on courses that point toward a specific profession — courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or as I sometimes put it, â€Å"pre-rich. † But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obligated to fulfill their parents' expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them. I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one — she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-rounded person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a â€Å"dumb† thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the â€Å"dumb† courses her father wants her to take — at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students — no small achievement in itself — she deserves to follow her muse. Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year. I had a freshman student I'll call Linda, † one dean told me, â€Å"who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I couldn't tell her that Barabra had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda. † The story is almost funny — except that it's not. It's symptomatic of all the pressures put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clack of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due : â€Å"Will I get everything done? † Probably they won't. They will get sick. They will get â€Å"blocked†. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out. Hey Carlos, Help! Part of the problem is that they do more than they are expected to do. A professor will assign five-page papers. Several students will start writing ten-page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment. â€Å"Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,† one dean points out, â€Å"it's just bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic works, psychologically. † Why can't the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor's main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and doesn't know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He didn't sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought from home. That's what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for. To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students don't have as much time to spend. They also are overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their fingernails onto a shrinking profession. If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments — as departmental chairmen or members of committees — that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe. Ultimately it will be the student's own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents' dreams and their classmates' fears. They must be jolted into believing in themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future. â€Å"Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,† says Carlos Horta. â€Å"College should be open-ended; at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along, it's almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist — that they've got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best-paying slot. † â€Å"They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to a life of colorless mediocrity. They'll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing. † I have painted too drab a portrait of today's students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story: if they were so dreary I wouldn't so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are unusually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known. Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extra-curricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, peform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it. This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the '60's they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale's residential colleges as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions — as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians — with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies. They also can't afford to be the willing slave for organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper whose past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr. — much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that â€Å"newsies† routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today's student will write one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I've never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet. If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it's because that's where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It's why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age. I tell students that there is no one â€Å"right† way to get ahead — that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway producers, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians — a mixed bag of achievers. I ask them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitious route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.